President Bukele slashed size of Congress and number of municipalities, raising fears govt is consolidating power ahead of 2024 polls; authorities put pressure on former officials accused of corruption.

Govt enacted number of administrative-political reforms. During State of the Union address on 1 June, President Bukele announced reorganisation of govt: reduction of municipalities from 262 to 44; reduction of legislative assembly from 84 seats to 60; and “war on corruption”. Following speech, govt 7 June passed law slimming Congress down to 60 deputies, 14 June reduced number of municipalities to 44. Opposition politicians warned move concentrates power in hands of ruling party Nuevas Ideas ahead of Feb 2024 presidential, legislative and local elections; Nuevas Ideas 26 June announced Bukele had registered to run for re-election, despite constitutional ban on consecutive presidential re-election. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 14 June approved state of exception’s fifteenth extension amid human rights concerns.

Judicial proceedings against former officials accused of corruption continued. Attorney General 6 June charged former President Alfredo Cristiani in connection with 1989 massacre of six Jesuit priests and two women. National Civilian Police director 6 June announced politicians and journalists involved in 2012 “gang truce” talks will face judicial proceedings. Attorney General 17 June announced money laundering charges against former Defence Minister David Munguía Payes, sentenced in May to 18 years in prison for having conducted truce negotiations with criminal groups in 2012.

President Bukele slashed size of Congress and number of municipalities, raising fears govt is consolidating power ahead of 2024 polls; authorities put pressure on former officials accused of corruption.

Govt enacted number of administrative-political reforms. During State of the Union address on 1 June, President Bukele announced reorganisation of govt: reduction of municipalities from 262 to 44; reduction of legislative assembly from 84 seats to 60; and “war on corruption”. Following speech, govt 7 June passed law slimming Congress down to 60 deputies, 14 June reduced number of municipalities to 44. Opposition politicians warned move concentrates power in hands of ruling party Nuevas Ideas ahead of Feb 2024 presidential, legislative and local elections; Nuevas Ideas 26 June announced Bukele had registered to run for re-election, despite constitutional ban on consecutive presidential re-election. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 14 June approved state of exception’s fifteenth extension amid human rights concerns.

Judicial proceedings against former officials accused of corruption continued. Attorney General 6 June charged former President Alfredo Cristiani in connection with 1989 massacre of six Jesuit priests and two women. National Civilian Police director 6 June announced politicians and journalists involved in 2012 “gang truce” talks will face judicial proceedings. Attorney General 17 June announced money laundering charges against former Defence Minister David Munguía Payes, sentenced in May to 18 years in prison for having conducted truce negotiations with criminal groups in 2012.

Authorities renewed state of exception as crackdown on gangs continued, and court handed down lengthy prison sentence to former president for ties to gangs.

Security forces fenced off community after suspected gang members killed officer. As Legislative Assembly 16 May approved state of exception’s 14th extension, presumed gang members same day killed officer in Nueva Conception municipality (Chalatenango department); authorities 17 May deployed 500 police and 5,000 soldiers to area and installed fence around perimeter, making Nueva Conception fifth municipality to be cordoned off since President Bukele late 2022 announced phase 5 of Territorial Control Plan, intended to “extract every last terrorist from the communities of El Salvador”. Meanwhile, NGO Cristosal 29 May said at least 153 people had died in custody since state of exception began in March 2022.

Court sentenced former president for illicit association with gangs. Trial proceeded against former President Mauricio Funes and former Justice and Security Minister David Munguía Payés, accused of “illicit association” and “breach of duties” during 2012-2014 gang truce, notably making “pact” with gangs. Former director of State Intelligence Service José Ricardo Perdomo 3 May testified that Funes knew of “irregular conditions” inside prisons, such as mediators entering without registering, deactivation of cell phone signals and gang leaders’ transfer to other prison facilities with lower security measures. Court 29 May sentenced Funes and Munguía to 14 and 18 years in prison, respectively.

Authorities renewed state of exception for 13th time as concerns about human rights violations persisted; U.S. arrested key MS-13 leader on terrorism charges.

State of exception extended amid continued concern over human rights violations. Legislative assembly 12 April once again approved state of exception’s extension, while Justice and Public Security Minister Gustavo Villatoro 17 April said authorities had arrested 67,467 people for gang affiliation since introducing measure. Complaints of human rights violations continued. Notably, NGO Amnesty International 3 April published statement accusing authorities of “systematically” committing human rights violations; five local civil society organisations 11 April submitted report to UN regarding extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions in El Salvador’s prisons. Meanwhile, trade union representatives 18 April condemned arrest of at least 16 trade unionists since Jan 2023 under state of exception framework; moves signal measure’s expanding use against political actors, which may increase as elections edge closer.

MS-13 leader arrested on terrorism charges. U.S. 18 April arrested MS-13 gang leader Jose Wilfredo Ayala-Alcantara, also known as “Indio de Hollywood”, upon his arrival in Texas state after Mexico deported him. He and 12 associates already in U.S. custody were detained on terrorism charges and now await trial; President Bukele’s administration had previously released some of these leaders from Salvadoran prisons.

One year after govt first imposed 30-day state of exception, authorities renewed measure for 12th time amid widespread support; Legislative Assembly lifted electoral reform ban.

One-year anniversary of state of exception passed. 27 March marked one year since govt first imposed state of exception for 30 days to tackle gang violence. Twelve days prior, legislative assembly 15 March approved measure’s 12th extension. Justice and Public Security Minister Gustavo Villatoro 27 March said authorities had arrested 66,417 people for gang affiliation since measure took effect. Complaints about human rights violations persisted. Notably, UN human rights office 28 March said 90 people have died in custody since March 2022, adding that “there is only limited information on how investigations of those deaths are proceeding”. Despite human rights concerns, state of exception continued to enjoy wide popular support and President Bukele maintained high approval ratings.

Authorities repealed ban on reforms to electoral processes. Legislative Assembly 15 March lifted ban on enacting changes to electoral system one year before elections. Opposition politician Claudia Ortiz condemned move, arguing measure will allow govt to modify rules up to one day before polls are held, which indicates ruling party may seek to make changes ahead of next presidential election in Feb 2024; Ortiz accused Bukele of seeking to “concentrate more power”.

Authorities extended state of exception for 11th time, and International Monetary Fund (IMF) published findings on state of economy and outlook.

State of exception renewed once again amid continued concern about human rights. Following Legislative Assembly’s 11th renewal of state of exception on 14 Feb, Minister of Justice and Public Security Gustavo Villatoro 22 Feb said 64,512 people had been arrested for gang affiliation since measure began. Concerns about human rights violations continued as state of exception’s one-year anniversary neared. Notably, online news outlet El Faro 3 Feb said measure had broken gangs’ hold on communities but also resulted in systematic violation of human rights and slide into authoritarianism. According to NGO Cristosal, as of 15 Feb there had been at least 107 in-custody deaths since March 2022. Meanwhile, authorities 24 Feb transferred 2,000 prisoners to new mega-prison of Tecoluca, which will house 40,000 prisoners; NGO Human Rights Watch 26 Feb said “packing tens of thousands of detainees is unlikely to bring security for Salvadorans in a sustainable manner”.

International Monetary Fund released statement on economic situation. Following its latest mission to El Salvador, IMF 10 Feb presented final statement amid concerns about economic situation, saying country must bring its debt “back to a sustainable path”; statement also highlighted increased vulnerabilities, including account deficit, low international reserves and high stock of short-term domestic debt.

Authorities renewed state of exception for tenth time as President Bukele lauded improved security situation; Salvadoran debt remained high.

Authorities once again renewed state of exception. Legislative Assembly 11 Jan extended state of exception, cornerstone of Bukele’s administration, for tenth time. News outlet La Prensa Gráfica 17 Jan reported that more than 97,000 people, or 2% of country’s adult population, is now behind bars, making it highest imprisonment rate worldwide; Legislative Assembly 12 Jan reported over 61,000 people have been arrested since state of exception began in March 2022. Bukele 17 Jan declared that El Salvador had become “safest country in Latin America” and that state of exception would last “as long as necessary”.

NGOs raised concerns over arbitrary arrests and deaths in custody in past year. NGO Cristosal 5 Jan said it had received 3,086 complaints of human rights violations between March 2022 and 31 Dec, 97% of which were for arbitrary arrests. In its World Report 2023, NGO Human Rights Watch (HRW) 12 Jan expressed concern for high number of arbitrary arrests and deaths of 90 people while in custody. In joint statement, HRW and Cristosal 27 Jan said leaked database belonging to Ministry of Public Safety “supports findings of mass due process violations, severe prison overcrowding, and deaths in custody”.

In other important developments. News outlet Elsalvador.com 18 Jan reported that Bukele had increased Salvadoran debt by $5 billion in his three years in office. Legislative Assembly 11 Jan approved controversial Digital Securities Law, allowing El Salvador to issue Bitcoin-backed bonds. VP Ulloa 3 Jan asked Brazil to rejoin Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, signalling willingness to engage with other countries in region.

Govt launched major offensive in Soyapango to combat gang violence as authorities renewed state of exception for ninth time; relations with U.S. remained tense.

Campaign of mass arrests to tackle gangs continued. President Bukele 3 Dec launched offensive in Soyapango city (centre), deploying 8,500 soldiers and 1,500 police officers to cut off transit in and out of city and search houses for gang members. Ministry of justice 12 Dec confirmed apprehension of at least 375 alleged gang members in ongoing operation, next day announced that 60,000 alleged gang members had been arrested since state of exception began late March. In capital San Salvador, over 2,000 soldiers and around 230 police officers 24, 25 Dec surrounded Tutunichapa and La Granjita neighbourhoods to root out gang members. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 14 Dec extended state of exception for ninth time.

Broad public support for crackdown continued, NGOs denounced abuses. NGO Human Rights Watch and Salvadoran group Cristosal 7 Dec published report documenting hundreds of forced disappearances, torture, deaths in custody and arbitrary arrests under state of exception. Journalist association APES 21 Dec said freedom of press is in “critical state”. Nonetheless, crackdown remained popular, with news outlet La Prensa Gráfica 12 Dec publishing survey showing that 88% of 1,520 interviewees support Bukele and 85% consider security situation improved.

In other important developments. U.S. Treasury Department 9 Dec sanctioned two officials close to Bukele – Minister of Labour Rolando Castro and Bukele’s legal secretary Conan Castro – on charges of corruption and human rights violations. Meanwhile, Bukele 7 Dec announced govt had repurchased $82mn of its sovereign debt bonds in attempt to calm market concerns around possible debt default.

Govt’s heavy-handed approach to gangs continued amid eighth renewal of state of exception; further evidence of past ties between officials and gangs emerged.

Bukele administration continued its mano dura approach to tackle gangs. Vice Minister of Justice and director of prison system Osiris Luna Meza 1 Nov posted video of non-gang affiliated prisoners destroying tombs of gang members, part of new effort to erase all gang symbolism in country. Legislative Assembly same day approved series of reforms that ease proceedings to approve wiretapping through newly established Examining Courts; reforms exempt attorney general’s office from submitting reports on wiretaps to judges and strip human rights ombudsman’s office of oversight role. President Bukele 23 Nov announced phase 5 of “Territorial Control Plan”, called Extraction, intended to “extract every last terrorist from the communities of El Salvador”. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 15 Nov renewed state of exception for eighth time, while ministry of security 21 Nov reported arrest of over 58,000 suspected gang members since state of exception began in March. Police reported stark reduction of daily homicides between Jan and 14 Nov, putting 2022 on track to break record low murder rate of 2021. However, UN Committee against Torture 25 Nov published report expressing concern over arrests and irregularities committed under state of exception.

Media continued to expose past ties between authorities and gangs. Association of Journalists of El Salvador 3 Nov accused authorities of harassment and threats against journalist Juan Martínez d’Aubuisson after investigation published four days earlier found that current Attorney General Rodolfo Delgado had defended MS-13 collaborators in the past. Meanwhile, online news outlet El Faro 7 Nov revealed that National Civil Police had investigated Luna Meza in 2020 for possible links to gang leaders and drug traffickers.

In other important developments. Bukele 9 Nov announced that El Salvador and China will sign free trade agreement.

Govt continued crackdown on gangs amid seventh renewal of state of exception since March; relations with Western partners grew more strained.

Authorities launched major military operation targeting gang members. Gang-related homicide early Oct prompted govt to launch massive military operation in Comasagua municipality (centre west). Over 2,000 soldiers and police 2 Oct surrounded and closed off town of 12,000 inhabitants to search for members of MS-13 gang, and arrested at least 155 gang members in following days; Attorney General’s Office 16 Oct charged detainees with “illicit association” and other crimes.

State of exception renewed for seventh time amid concerns over human rights. Then human rights ombudsperson Apolonio Tobar 14 Oct released report revealing that between 27 March (when state of exception was first imposed) and 3 Oct, his office had received 3,777 complaints of human rights violations; despite allegations, Legislative Assembly same day renewed state of exception for seventh time. Although measure remains popular among Salvadorans, survey published 18 Oct by Central American University revealed growing awareness of state of exception’s limitations; notably, 51% of interviewees feared it would not solve gang issue and over 30% knew someone unjustly detained.

New allegations against senior figures of past collusion with gangs emerged. Attorney General’s Office 13 Oct formally accused former ARENA party presidential candidate Norman Quijano of negotiating with gangs to gain electoral support in 2014 elections. Meanwhile, news outlet El Faro 27 Oct published new evidence that authorities released senior MS-13 gang leader Élmer Canales Rivera, alias “Crook,” from prison in November 2021, despite multiple upstanding sentences adding up to over four decades in prison.

In other important developments. El Salvador was one of three countries to abstain in Organization of American States General Assembly’s resolution 7 Oct denouncing Nicaraguan President Ortega’s crackdown on dissent; 12 Oct did not participate in UN General Assembly vote to condemn Russia’s pledged annexation of four Ukrainian territories.

President Bukele announced candidacy for 2024 elections, authorities renewed for sixth time state of exception, and economic outlook remained poor.

President Bukele announced re-election bid. On anniversary of country’s independence, Bukele 15 Sept announced he would seek re-election in 2024, defying country’s constitution prohibiting presidents from serving consecutive terms. Supreme Court’s constitutional chamber, appointed by current legislature, had already ruled in favour of allowing Bukele to stand for re-election in Sept 2021.

State of exception was extended for sixth time amid small-scale protests. Several protests against state of exception (imposed in March to address gang violence) took place throughout month. Notably, relatives of detainees 5 Sept marched to Human Rights Ombudsperson’s office calling on institution to address alleged abuses perpetrated under emergency powers; hundreds 15 Sept took to streets in capital San Salvador demanding end to state of exception. Civil society groups 23 Sept filed lawsuit with Inter-American Commission on Human Rights for arbitrary detention of at least 152 people. Legislative Assembly 14 Sept however extended emergency measures for sixth time; decision came days after consulting firm Cid Gallup 5 Sept published poll showing that 91% of respondents supported govt’s measures to crackdown on gangs.

Economic outlook remained worrying. Govt 12 Sept offered creditors partial buyback of $1.6 billion bonds due in 2023 and 2025 in order to reduce risk of debt default; Bukele 21 Sept announced govt had repurchased $565 million bonds. However, financial services company Fitch Ratings 15 Sept said “default of some sort” in future was “probable”.

Govt extended state of emergency for fifth time to combat gang violence as more evidence emerged of authorities’ abuses. Press and civil society organisations accused authorities of human rights violations, including arbitrary detentions and torture, during state of emergency imposed late March. Notably, media outlet El Faro 7 Aug published court records of 690 people arrested since March, showing that police had justified arrests of at least 60 with ambiguous criteria such as “looking suspicious” or being “nervous”; Central American University Human Rights Observatory 10 Aug released report documenting 306 cases of torture between 27 March and 7 July; news outlet La Prensa Gráfica 25 Aug reported that, according to sources from Institute of Legal Medicine, 73 people have died in custody since March, at least 35 of them presenting signs of violence. Dozens of people 9, 16, 24 Aug took to streets in capital San Salvador, demanding release of their relatives detained since March. Despite criticism, Legislative Assembly 17 Aug approved fifth extension of state of emergency; govt same day said that 50,000 suspected gang members had been detained since March. Authorities 9 Aug extradited MS-13 members José Jonathan Guevara-Castro, alias “Sospechoso”, and Edwin Mauricio Rodríguez Morales, alias “Manicomio”, to U.S., 24 Aug reported capture of one MS-13 leader, Byron Arístides Salazar Ramírez, alias “Sleepy”. La Prensa Gráfica 9 Aug revealed court had ordered Attorney General’s Office to investigate whether 18th Street gang had intervened in favour of President Bukele’s Nuevas Ideas candidates in 2021 municipal and legislative elections. In interview with French daily newspaper Le Monde, VP Félix Ulloa 12 Aug said that audios, in which govt official Carlos Marroquín admitted to negotiating with gangs, were genuine and suggested authorities open investigation against him. On international front, El Salvador 12 Aug abstained from condemning Nicaraguan President Ortega’s crackdown on dissent during Organization of American States (OAS) extraordinary session; OAS approved resolution.

Govt extended state of emergency for fourth time amid continued crackdown on gangs, and new evidence of release of MS-13 gang leaders came to light. National police 18 July reported that authorities had arrested over 46,000 alleged gang members since state of emergency began in late March, and which govt 20 July extended by another month for fourth time. Human Rights Prosecutor Apolonio Tobar 4 July said his office had received 2,673 complaints of human rights violations related to state of emergency implementation. Tobar 11 July visited country’s fullest prisons and acknowledged overcrowding problems, but did not mention deaths in custody, which news agencies early July reported to be over 50 since late March. As govt’s crackdown on gangs continued apace, clashes between gangs and security forces increased. Notably, unknown assailants 13 July shot dead one soldier in rural community of Chalatenango (north west), which has strong MS-13 gang presence; three gang members were killed and ten more arrested 10 July after shootout with security forces in rural area of Sonsonate (west). President Bukele 21 July said new jail under construction in Tecoluca municipality of San Vicente department (centre) would be ready in 60 days and will be able to house up to 40,000 gang members. New evidence surfaced in connection with release from prison and subsequent escape abroad of top MS-13 leaders. El Faro news outlet 11 July published report showing pictures and videos of MS-13 leader Elmer Canales Rivera, alias “Crook”, posted on social media by his partner between late 2021 and early 2022, which seemed to confirm that he was released from prison and subsequently left El Salvador, reportedly with govt’s help. Guatemalan news outlet No-Ficción 12 July reported that authorities in late 2021 released another key MS-13 leader, known as “Viejo Santos”, having served sentence, despite U.S. in 2013 designating him one of MS-13’s most important leaders; he was rearrested in Guatemala in April. U.S. State Dept 20 July added six current and former Salvadoran officials to list of corrupt actors in Central America known as Engel list, including head of Bukele’s Nuevas Ideas party.

Authorities continued crackdown on gangs despite international criticism; economic situation worsened amid Bitcoin’s volatility. President Bukele 1 June highlighted success of his security measures to Legislative Assembly, saying “we have almost won the war against the gangs”. National Police 24 June reported authorities had arrested over 42,250 alleged gang members since state of emergency began late March. Legislative Assembly 21 June approved third extension of state of emergency, while Bukele 22 June announced construction of “Terrorism Confinement Centre”, due to house around 20,000 gang members. Shootout between suspected gang members and security forces 28 June, left three police dead in Santa Ana department (centre); Bukele same day said govt would “ramp up” war against gangs. Govt crackdown on gangs continued to prompt condemnation. Notably, NGO Amnesty International 2 June accused govt of “massive human rights violations”; Human Rights Ombudsman 9 June announced his office had received nearly 2,000 complaints of human rights violations in first two months of state of emergency (27 March- 25 May); and UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 13 June expressed concern about arbitrary detentions. As of 24 June, human rights groups reported at least 52 deaths since 27 March. Meanwhile, Bukele’s relations with U.S. deteriorated further. According to Associated Press media outlet, Bukele, who did not attend 6-10 June Americas Summit held in Los Angeles, U.S., 9 June declined to speak with U.S. Sec of State Antony Blinken. U.S. State Department 24 June called on country to “immediately extradite” some 15 MS12 gang leaders; govt had yet to respond by end of month despite extradition treaty with U.S.. Economic prospects continued to worsen amid concerns that Bukele’s renewed tensions with U.S. and multilateral financial institutions could impact govt’s ability to access foreign funds and investments in future. Central Bank 8 June announced that inflation reached 7.5 per cent in May, highest rate since 2010. Bitcoin 24 June plunged to around $20,000.

Under renewed state of emergency, authorities continued mass detentions campaign to address gang violence; economic outlook deteriorated. Legislative Assembly 25 May extended state of emergency, initially imposed in late March to deal with surge of gang violence, and approved $10 mn budget increase to Attorney General’s office for wiretapping. Authorities continued heavy crackdown to deal with gang violence. National Police 27 May said over 35,000 people arrested since 27 March; Attorney General 22 May said over 23,000 will remain in temporary detention while trials proceed. Security Minister 9 May said authorities released at least 168 wrongfully detained, while Central America University radio 17 May said 17 have died in custody. Human rights organisations continued to criticise crackdown; notably, NGO Cristosal raised concerns about almost 700 human rights violations by authorities, including numerous cases of arbitrary detentions, between 27 March and 24 May. Central America University polling institute 25 May released survey showing eight out of ten interviewees felt crime had decreased since state of exception, with 50% approving its extension. New evidence emerged about govt dealings with gangs. Media outlet El Faro 17 May published report with confession from high-ranking MS-13 gang members for killing at least 87 after fellow gang members were arrested late March; senior govt official admitted he released prominent MS-13 leader to illustrate commitment to talks. Meanwhile, country’s economic outlook worsened, driven by stark decrease in Bitcoin value, which country adopted as legal tender in 2021. Emerging Markets Bonds Index 16 May rated country’s bonds at over 24%, signalling increasing risk, while govt 8 May bought another 500 bitcoins despite drop in prices.

Authorities arrested scores of suspected gang members following surge in gang violence in March, prompting concerns locally and internationally over citizens’ rights. Following most lethal killing spree in March, which prompted imposition of state of emergency 26 March, authorities took number of steps to tackle gang violence which drew concerns about citizens’ rights. Legislative Assembly 5 April approved changes to criminal code, imposing ten to 15 years imprisonment for reports that could be interpreted as sharing messages coming from gangs; Association of Journalists of El Salvador immediately expressed concern and described it as “gag measure”. Numerous other rights groups condemned govt’s legislative measures; notably, NGO Human Rights Watch 8 April expressed concerns that “sweeping legal amendments” since late March “violate basic due process guarantees and children’s rights”. Authorities continued to arrest suspected gang members during month. Parliamentarians 19 April passed law to build new jails and 24 April renewed state of exception for 30 more days. Bukele 27 April announced over 20,000 alleged gang members arrested since state of emergency. Head of Police Workers Union Marvin Reyes 12 April denounced being obliged to reach detention quotas. Bukele 5 April threatened to stop feeding imprisoned gang members if gangs attempted to retaliate. Labour Minister Rolando Castro 28 April said 1 May labour demonstrations banned in light of state of exception. Internationally, U.S. State Department 10 April criticised penal code reform, said “law lends itself to attempts to censor the media (…) and silence critics”, and expressed support for El Salvador’s fight against gangs; President Bukele next day argued current U.S. administration is “only supporting the gangs and their ‘civil liberties’”. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 5 April expressed concern about measures introduced since late March to counter rise in gang violence, said some of those arrested “reportedly been subjected to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment”, also expressed concerns about criminal trials held in abstentia and rights of teenagers associated with gangs. NGO Amnesty International 25 April commented govt’s measures to address gang-related killings “have created a perfect storm of human rights violations”.

Authorities declared state of emergency in response to most lethal killing spree since President Bukele took office; tensions with U.S. persisted. Gang violence peaked during month: gangs 26 March killed 62 people in 24 hours, making it deadliest gang violence in a day in country’s recent history. Govt same day declared state of emergency for 30 days and Bukele 27 March ordered to tighten liberties in jails, including by reducing meals. Authorities 28 March declared more than 1,000 suspected gang members had been arrested. Parliament 30 March approved tougher sentences for gang members, including sentences of between 40 and 45 years for “creators, organisers, chiefs, leaders, financiers or ringleaders” of gang groups. Meanwhile, amid elevated oil prices in part due to conflict in Ukraine, Bukele 10 March announced several measures to tackle economic impact on population, including temporary suspension of fuel taxes to address public transport cost. After Catalino Miranda, owner of almost 300 buses covering two routes, allegedly raised ticket prices, authorities 12 March detained him, and accused him of “aggressive resistance”, and 18 March of overpricing; military officers subsequently started driving Miranda’s buses, and minister of public works advertised hiring of new bus drivers. Business association ANEP 12 March expressed concern about act it considered expropriation; Bukele next day threatened to intervene further in case of strikes, including by taking over public services. As Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 16 March held hearing into alleged unlawful surveillance of Salvadoran journalists and activists using Pegasus spyware, authorities denied responsibility in reported case. After El Salvador 2 March abstained in UN General Assembly vote denouncing Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, head of U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Bob Menéndez same day requested reconsidering El Salvador’s participation in free trade agreement with U.S.. Court 11 March ordered capture of former President Alfredo Cristiano in relation to 1989 massacre of six Jesuit priests and two others. Some 3,000 women 6 March marched in capital San Salvador calling for legalising abortion and combatting femicides.

Following allegations of state-sponsored surveillance on journalists and activists, authorities endorsed revisions to criminal code allowing “digital undercover operations”. Legislative Assembly 1 Feb amended criminal code, with new measures authorising state-led digital undercover operations, reportedly in response to crimes that are and can be committed through abuse of information and communication technologies; opposition alongside NGOs including Human Rights Watch and Association of Journalists of El Salvador (APES) immediately condemned move, said it legalises espionage and gives too broad powers to prosecutor’s office. NGO Cristosal 8 Feb filed complaint before Court of Audits against President Bukele, and three other officials including minister of justice and minister of defence, for alleged use of funds to support Pegasus surveillance program which had been found in numerous Salvadoran activists’ and journalists’ devices. Dozens 4 Feb protested in capital San Salvador demanding pension reform promised by Bukele. U.S. agency Fitch Ratings 9 Feb downgraded El Salvador’s Long-Term Foreign Currency Issuer Default Rating from B- to CCC, arguing “weakening of institutions and concentration of power in the presidency have increased policy unpredictability” and “adoption of bitcoin as legal tender has added uncertainty about potential for IMF [International Monetary Fund] program that would unlock financing for 2022-2023”. After three U.S. senators 16 Feb introduced Accountability for Cryptocurrency in El Salvador (ACES) bill, Bukele same day called them “boomers” and denied U.S. jurisdiction over “sovereign and independent nation”. Bukele 20 Feb said he will send Congress proposal to grant citizenship to foreign investors. Attorney General’s Office 25 Feb brought forward charges against former President Alfredo Cristiani and 12 others for role in 1989 massacre of six Jesuit priests and two women. Nicaragua 6 Feb denounced violation of maritime space by El Salvador naval forces in Gulf of Fonseca, deemed it provocative; El Salvador next day said space under its sovereignty.

President Bukele continued to tighten authoritarian grip as controversial legislative decision prompted thousands to protest and revelations about media surveillance program sparked anti-govt outcry. Legislative Assembly 11 Jan abolished 1993 decree designating 16 Jan “Day of commemoration of the Peace Agreements”, renamed it “National day of the victims of the armed conflict” as move appeared to reflect President Bukele’s position on issue of peace agreements which he described as a “farce”. In protest, some 2,000 former guerrilla, army veterans, human rights victims, and social and feminist organisation members 16 Jan marched in capital San Salvador; police checkpoints same day reportedly tried to prevent others from across country to join. Civil society groups Citizen Lab and Access Now 12 Jan reported that Pegasus surveillance program found in 35 Salvadoran activists and journalists’ devices, including 22 of media outlet El Faro, who had often clashed with Bukele; govt next day denied links with Pegasus or its producer while Association of Journalists of El Salvador 14 Jan requested Attorney General’s office to launch investigation. Attorney general 24 Jan confirmed allegations currently under investigation. Court 10 Jan authorised Attorney General’s office to inquire and seize electronic devices of seven current and former prosecutors who had investigated Bukele’s govt for acts of corruption, including negotiations with gang leaders, on suspicion that they may have leaked details of ongoing investigations to El Faro. Attorney General’s office 12 Jan charged former ARENA party presidential candidate, Norman Quijano, with illicit association and electoral fraud; court 18 Jan issued arrest warrant against him. Meanwhile, rating agency Moody’s 13 Jan warned El Salvador’s bitcoin trading threatens sovereign credit rating; Bukele 15 Jan dismissed warning. International Monetary Fund 25 Jan urged govt to remove Bitcoin’s legal tender status.

Despite maintaining great popularity, President Bukele continued to face protests amid strained relations with U.S. as Washington imposed new sanctions on govt officials. U.S. Treasury Dept 8 Dec sanctioned prison system director and vice minister of justice and public security, Osiris Luna Meza, and chairman of govt body Social Fabric Reconstruction Unit, Carlos Amilcar Marroquin Chica, for corruption, accusing them of negotiating truce with gang leaders on behalf of govt, and granting privileges to gang leaders in exchange for lower violence and political support; also said Luna and his mother Alma Meza responsible for embezzling millions of dollars from prison system and stealing and reselling pandemic relief supplies. U.S. Treasury Dept next day sanctioned Bukele’s chief of cabinet, Carolina Recinos, on accusations of heading “corruption scheme” and authorising “suspicious pandemic-related purchases”. Bukele immediately denounced “absurd daily accusations” and claimed U.S. officials, including former Chargé d’Affaires in El Salvador Jean Manes, sought to halt actions against corrupt Salvadoran officials. Former senior anti-corruption prosecutor German Arriaza 28 Dec accused govt of making deal with gangs in 2019 to reduce murder rates and help ruling party win elections, said Bukele shut down his unit’s probe into pact. Thousands 12 Dec demonstrated in capital San Salvador denouncing authoritarian drift and corruption of govt officials; Bukele same day accused U.S. govt of “fund[ing] communist movements against a democratically elected govt”. Legislative Assembly 15 Dec stripped immunity of former presidential candidate for right-wing Nationalist Republican Alliance party (ARENA), Norman Quijano, now member of Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), on accusations of paying gangs to support his presidential campaign in 2014; ARENA deputies immediately condemned move, saying PARLACEN, not legislature, has jurisdiction over case. Legislative Assembly 22 Dec re-elected Rodolfo Delgado to serve for three more years as attorney general; Delgado’s decision last June to end anti-corruption accord with Organization of American States had fed friction with U.S.

President Bukele deployed military in response to surge in gang-related violence, and relations with U.S. deteriorated further. After months of low violence rates, authorities 9-11 Nov recorded at least 42 homicides, mainly in and around capital San Salvador; upsurge of violence reportedly mostly driven by inter-gang killings. In response, Bukele 11 Nov ordered military to patrol streets; in following days, security forces detained dozens of gang members. Violence immediately dropped with police recording “zero homicide” nationwide 12 Nov. News website Infobae next day alleged escalation of violence came after break in negotiations involving govt, MS-13 and 18th Street gangs; govt however denies negotiating with gangs. Following unprecedented anti-govt protests in Sept-Oct, Bukele 4 Nov suggested U.S. is financing NGOs to act as political opponents, and 9 Nov presented “Foreign Agents” bill to Legislative Assembly; bill aims to “prohibit foreign interference” in domestic affairs notably by imposing 40% tax on foreign donations to civil society and media organisations. Over 50 NGOs 16 Nov expressed concern that law might affect freedom of press and association and hinder continuity of their projects. Prosecutors 22 Nov raided offices of seven NGOs, allegedly as part of investigation on embezzlement of public funds, but rights activists denounced move as intimidation. American technology company Apple 24 Nov alerted over two dozen reporters, activists, opposition and ruling party New Ideas politicians of potential govt surveillance of their iPhones. Attorney general 17 Nov urged National Assembly to withdraw immunity of two New Ideas lawmakers to investigate them over allegations of accepting bribes from U.S. to plot against their own party, which U.S. embassy denied. U.S. chargé d’affaires in El Salvador, Jean Manes, 22 Nov announced her departure, said bilateral relations currently “paused” due to San Salvador’s apparent lack of interest in dialogue.

President Bukele continued to face mounting opposition from civil society. Around 4,000 people 17 Oct took to streets in capital San Salvador, decrying Bukele’s “antidemocratic” moves in past months, including ouster of Supreme Court’s Constitutional Chamber judges and potential plan to seek second consecutive term despite constitutional prohibition on re-election, as well as adoption of Bitcoin as legal tender; in attempt to hinder march, police reportedly set up checkpoints along main highways and stopped vehicles headed to capital. Bukele same day responded to critics with changing his Twitter bio to “Emperor of El Salvador”. In apparent attempt to stem nascent protest movement, National Assembly 20 Oct banned mass gatherings for 45 days, citing need to prevent COVID-19 spread, while exempting sporting and cultural events. National Association of Private Enterprise and José Simeón Cañas University 8 Oct called on International Monetary Fund, with which govt is negotiating $1.3bn loan, to set conditions for any loan agreement to prohibit Bukele’s re-election and ensure ousted judges are restored. Inter-American Press Association’s annual report on press freedom 20 Oct ranked El Salvador 18th out of 22 countries, losing two positions compared to 2020. Meanwhile, U.S. Chargé d’Affaires to El Salvador Jean Manes 5 Oct urged authorities to abide by extradition agreement with Washington; comment comes after Supreme Court in Aug halted top MS-13 gang leader’s extradition to U.S.. U.S. embassy in El Salvador 31 Oct denied links to alleged plot to disband parliamentary group of Bukele’s New Ideas party, after party published recording in which individual negotiates, allegedly on behalf of U.S. govt, departure of two lawmakers from parliamentary group.

First signs of discontent surfaced as President Bukele launched Bitcoin and continued to concentrate power in executive branch. Supreme Court’s Constitutional Chamber 3 Sept ruled presidents can serve two consecutive terms, tossing aside constitutional ban on re-election of incumbents and paving way for Bukele to stand for re-election in 2024; U.S. Interim Chargé d’Affaires in El Salvador Jean Manes next day condemned ruling and branded El Salvador “a democracy in decline”; U.S. State Dept 20 Sept denied U.S. entry to all five Constitutional Chamber’s magistrates. Govt 16 Sept said VP Félix Ulloa had submitted final proposal for constitutional changes to Bukele, including extension of presidential terms from five to six years and replacement of electoral tribunal. After Legislative Assembly late Aug approved judicial reform that mandates retirement of judges and prosecutors when they turn 60 or have completed 30 years of service, judges’ associations early Sept protested in capital San Salvador, said reform part of govt’s effort to assert control over judicial branch; Supreme Court 26 Sept however swore in 98 new judges. As El Salvador 7 Sept became first country worldwide to make Bitcoin legal tender, over 1,000 people marched in capital San Salvador to denounce cryptocurrency’s alleged flaws; protesters set fire to tyres. In one of largest anti-govt demonstrations in recent years, at least 8,000 people 15 Sept protested in capital against Bitcoin introduction and Bukele’s authoritarian tendencies; Bukele same day accused foreign powers of funding protesters and threatened to clamp down on future marches. Police 9 Sept detained former Justice and Public Security Minister Mauricio Ramírez Landaverde on corruption allegations, along with several former public officials.

Authorities presented constitutional reform plan seeking to extend presidential term and rejected new evidence pointing to talks between govt and gangs. Govt 13 Aug presented constitutional reform draft to foreign diplomats; reform, which includes 215 constitutional amendments, notably seeks to extend presidential term from five to six years and allow president to be re-elected after one term out of office instead of two. Public opinion poll which surveyed 2,400 people 18 Aug showed 85% approval rating for President Bukele, highest among Central America’s presidents. Police 1-17 Aug registered average of 1.6 murder daily, lowest reported crime rate in recent years; yet, at least five public transportation companies decided to limit their operations as of 12 Aug, citing increase in gang extortion. Online news outlet El Faro 23 Aug published leaks of 2020 Attorney General’s Office’s investigation showing govt officials met with main gang leaders in jail; Bukele and other officials next day downplayed publication and denied talks. Supreme Court 24 and 26 Aug halted extradition of two MS-13 gang leaders to U.S. International Monetary Fund (IMF) 2 Aug unlocked $400mn to help country address COVID-19 pandemic; IMF late July had warned against using crypto assets as national currencies as El Salvador prepares for becoming first nation worldwide to make Bitcoin legal tender in Sept. Hundreds 27 Aug marched through capital San Salvador to voice concerns about use of Bitcoin, citing its volatility.

President Bukele’s power grab became more evident as newly appointed judicial authorities scaled up prosecution against opposition; independent media also under attack. Attorney General’s Office 2 July raided opposition party ARENA’s headquarters in capital San Salvador and seized party’s assets and funds worth $3.9mn, in alleged attempt to recover funds donated by Taiwan in 2003-2004; 22 July issued arrest warrants against three high-level opposition party Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front officials, including former President Salvador Sánchez Cerén, and detained five former ministers and deputy ministers on embezzlement charges; 25 July extended accusations against another two individuals. Meanwhile, authorities restricted space for independent media. Notably, migration authorities 6 and 9 July reportedly denied work permit to two foreign journalists of online news outlet El Faro; NGO Committee to Protect Journalists 12 July said denial of work permits “sends a clear signal that critical journalism is on shaky ground”. Bukele 19 July said 20,000 more soldiers will be recruited in next five years, doubling size of armed forces, to combat armed gangs. U.S. State Dept 1 July imposed visa restrictions on 14 Salvadoran public figures, including four senior members of current administration and two former ministers under Bukele, over accusations of corruption, obstructing justice, or undermining democracy; Bukele next day denounced move “motivated by political purposes”.

Govt shut down anti-corruption body, fuelling further tensions with international partners. Govt 4 June pulled out of 2019 anti-corruption agreement with Organization of American States (OAS) that created International Commission against Impunity in El Salvador (CICIES); govt said move resulted from OAS hiring as adviser former mayor of country’s capital San Salvador, Ernesto Muyshondt, currently investigated for paying gangs in exchange for votes in 2014 presidential election. Police same day detained Muyshondt, and attorney general 24 June charged him and five others with “illicit association” and “electoral fraud”. U.S. Special Envoy for Northern Triangle Ricardo Zúñiga 4 June “regretted” govt’s decision to shut down CICIES, while OAS Sec-Gen Luis Almagro 7 June accused President Bukele of having used CICIES as tool “to investigate actions of opposition politicians”. In world premiere, Legislative Assembly 8 June approved Bukele’s proposal to make cryptocurrency Bitcoin legal tender. International Monetary Fund 10 June said move raised “macroeconomic, financial and legal issues”; Central American Bank for Economic Integration 14 June said it will provide technical assistance to govt for Bitcoin implementation; World Bank 16 June denied support to govt citing “environmental and transparency shortcomings” of bitcoin. U.S. development agency Administrator Samantha Power 14 June visited country, reiterated “U.S. concerns on democratic governance”, but announced $115mn in aid to address root causes of migration.

President Bukele moved to take control of judiciary, further straining relations with U.S. Newly inaugurated govt-controlled Legislative Assembly 1 May voted to remove all five justices of Supreme Court’s Constitutional Chamber, who had previously ruled against Bukele’s handling of COVID-19 pandemic; although Constitutional Chamber immediately declared move unconstitutional, four of five removed magistrates resigned in following days. Lawmakers overnight 1-2 May also dismissed Attorney General Raúl Melara, who had been investigating allegations of govt corruption and negotiations with gangs, over accusations of political affiliation. Washington slammed moves as dangerous power grab; notably, U.S. Special Envoy for Central America Ricardo Zuñiga 11 May decried removals as “unconstitutional”. Legislative Assembly 5 May approved legislation shielding officials from corruption investigations in COVID-19-related purchases since March 2020. U.S. Congresswoman 18 May disclosed names of five senior Salvadorian officials whom State Dept accused of corruption or involvement in narco-trafficking; Bukele immediately criticised list for not including opposition ARENA party representative, and Legislative Assembly next day ratified 2019 cooperation agreement with China in alleged response to U.S. pressure. U.S. development agency USAID 21 May redirected assistance away from National Police and Institute for Access to Public Information to civil society organisations; Bukele 25 May warned it would be illegal for USAID to fund opposition movements.

Amid ongoing political tensions, President Bukele took confrontational stance against U.S. officials who voiced concern over his rule of law record. In heated argument on Twitter, Bukele 1 April urged U.S. voters not to vote for U.S. Congresswoman Norma Torres after she called him a “narcissistic dictator”; U.S. Congressman Albio Sires 14 April decried Bukele’s call as “foreign election interference” that could amount to “national security threat”. After U.S. State Dept 5 April called on Bukele to “restore separation of powers”, Bukele 7-8 April refused to meet with U.S. Special Envoy for Northern Triangle Ricardo Zúñiga during his country visit. Zúñiga 7 April pledged $2mn to support International Commission against Impunity in El Salvador (CICIES), while group of 16 civil society organisations same day reiterated call on Legislative Assembly to expand CICIES’ mandate, including possibility to be plaintiff, before newly-elected Assembly takes office 1 May. Bukele immediately dismissed proposal as “worst thing we could do”, also said “nothing that outgoing Assembly approves will ever come into force”. Following Feb legislative elections, which saw Bukele’s party gain control of legislature, Supreme Electoral Tribunal 11 April said it had dismissed 40 electoral complaints; 15 April said institution’s electronic system had suffered some 15,000 attacks during vote counting. Supreme Court’s Constitutional Chamber 15 April admitted case against June 2019 appointment of Mauricio Arriaza Chicas as police chief, on grounds that Chicas’ military rank of lieutenant could violate constitutional provision mandating civilian police head; Chicas is one of Bukele’s staunchest allies.

President Bukele gained control of legislature amid persistent tensions between govt and electoral authorities. Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) 19 March announced final results of legislative and local elections held in Feb, giving Bukele’s party Nuevas Ideas absolute majority in Legislative Assembly with 56 of 84 seats, and 152 of 262 municipalities. TSE had delayed proclamation by a few days after Nuevas Ideas 16 March filed petition claiming electoral body was trying to reduce number of party’s city councillors in at least 83 municipalities. Earlier in month, police 1-2 March said they had found abandoned ballots in Chalatenango (north) and San Rafael Obrajuelo (centre) municipalities, but TSE head 11 March insisted that 100% of ballots had been counted. Meanwhile, after employees’ union of Legislative Assembly 10 March denounced existence of at least 1,000 ghost jobs in Congress, Attorney General’s Office 15 March opened investigation and next day searched Assembly, gathering more than a thousand documents. Organization of American States-backed International Commission against Impunity in El Salvador 25 March called on govt to carry out series of legal reforms to enhance fight against corruption. Association of Journalists in El Salvador 1 March reported at least 58 infringements of journalists’ activities on election day, including 40% by National Police. Supreme Court 5 March admitted claim for protection from digital newspaper El Faro against finance ministry’s audit, which included request for information about newspaper’s subscribers. Govt immediately said court was protecting El Faro’s “NGO-like agenda disguised as journalism”. Authorities 2 March detained MS-13 leader Hugo Armando Quinteros Mineros in Santiago de María municipality, Usulután department (east); U.S. authorities had charged him with terrorism in Jan. Criminal court 5 March sentenced 128 suspected gang members to between three and 415 years in prison for murder and terrorist activities.

Political tensions continued to run high as President Bukele accused electoral authorities of fraud ahead of 28 Feb elections. Bukele 7 Feb accused Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) magistrate of orchestrating fraud in upcoming legislative and local elections, after vote simulation using new vote-counting system experienced some glitches that day. Right-wing opposition party Nationalist Republican Alliance lawmaker Ricardo Velásquez Parker 9 Feb filed motion to remove Bukele from office by declaring him mentally unfit, accusing him of sowing division and citing his recurrent attacks on Legislative Assembly. Bukele immediately decried initiative as “coup attempt”. Assembly’s Political Committee 15 Feb started to discuss motion, also called for destitution of health minister for alleged irregularities and conflicts of interest in management of COVID-19 pandemic; move comes after NGO Funde late Jan accused govt of involvement in up to 20 corruption cases, notably in relation to COVID-19. After Attorney General’s Office 3 Feb confirmed arrest of three health ministry employees for suspected involvement in late Jan killing of two members of left-wing opposition party Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, police same day said attack was two-sided and accused Attorney General’s Office of releasing partial evidence. Two U.S. Congress members 7 Feb urged Bukele “to fully cooperate with the Attorney General’s independent investigation” and refrain from “stoking divisions in the interest of political gain”. Associated Press 9 Feb reported new U.S. administration refused to meet with Bukele when he was in Washington D.C. in early Feb, allegedly to prevent him from using meeting as show of support before elections. On election day, TSE 28 Feb accused Bukele of violating electoral silence by giving press conference, and announced possible sanctions against him.

Rare attack on political activists left two dead, while political tensions ran high ahead of legislative and municipal elections planned for Feb. Unidentified assailant 31 Jan opened fire on leftist opposition party Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) members in capital San Salvador, killing two and wounding three others. President Bukele shortly after suggested attack had been staged by FMLN, sparking outrage. On occasion of anniversary of Jan 1992 peace accords that ended 12-year civil war, Bukele lashed out at two peace accord signatories, opposition parties FMLN and Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA). Bukele 16 Jan said anniversary day would no longer commemorate “agreement between corrupt actors”, but remember conflict’s victims; Bukele in Dec had called peace accords “farce” signed by parties’ leadership for their own benefit. New reports of irregularities in prison system emerged, hinting at possible govt-gangs dialogue process. Notably, online newspaper El Faro 12 Jan claimed director of prisons authorised in Oct transfer of MS-13 gang leader Chino Milo from maximum-security jail Izalco Fase III to hospital for “medical emergency” despite lack of apparent health problems; Milo is close to one of MS-13’s heads who is reportedly having conversations with govt officials. U.S. prosecutors 14 Jan charged 14 MS-13 senior leaders, 11 of whom are in El Salvador, with terrorism. Meanwhile, court 5 Jan found former President Tony Saca and his wife guilty of illicit enrichment and ordered them to repay govt $4.4mn. Judge 6 Jan ordered new trial against former President Mauricio Funes on money-laundering charges. Judge investigating 1981 El Mozote massacre of around 1,000 civilians allegedly perpetrated by military officers was granted access to Catholic Church’s archives 25 Jan, after Archbishop of San Salvador Escobar Alas initially opposed inspection. In joint statement, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras govts 11 Jan said they will coordinate efforts to curb irregular migration. Guatemalan authorities 18 Jan said at least 300 Salvadorans had entered country through Nueva Anguiatú crossing point same day, trying to join caravan of Honduran migrants en route to U.S. (see Honduras); 25 Jan returned over 100 Salvadorans to their home country.

Tensions mounted between President Bukele and electoral authorities ahead of Feb 2021 elections and allegations of govt mismanagement of COVID-19 funds persisted. Bukele 5 Dec said Supreme Electoral Tribunal was hiring private security contractors to transport ballots ahead of legislative and municipal elections scheduled for Feb, suggesting that tribunal is plotting electoral fraud. Instituto Universitario de Opinión Pública’s opinion poll, which surveyed 1,265 people, 8 Dec showed 64% of electorate intended to vote for Bukele’s Nuevas Ideas party in upcoming elections. Meanwhile, govt’s COVID-19-related spending remained under scrutiny after news outlet El Faro late Nov reported allegations of misuse of funds for hotels repurposed as quarantine centres; Court of Accounts 1 Dec accused finance ministry of blocking its auditors from investigating other possible irregularities. Police Chief Mauricio Arriaza Chicas 8 Dec resigned as deputy security minister ahead of vote in Legislative Assembly on whether his immunity should be lifted following alleged breach of duties; opposition accuses him of failing to make Finance Minister Alejandro Zelaya comply with lawmakers’ order to give account of govt’s COVID-19 spending. Attorney General’s office 15 Dec opened judicial proceedings against Arriaza over “dereliction of duty” charges; judge 23 Dec dropped charges citing procedural flaws. Head of El Salvador Journalists’ Association 16 Dec reported 114 attacks on press freedom between Jan and Nov, said such attacks had risen by 281% during Bukele’s first year in office. U.S. 7 Dec extended Temporary Protected Status for Salvadoran nationals, which allows them to live and work in U.S., until Oct 2021. U.S. Congress 22 Dec passed bill requiring upcoming U.S. President Biden to submit to Congress list of corrupt officials in Northern Triangle, and curtailing military funding for Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala.

Tensions between President Bukele’s govt on one hand and Legislative Assembly and judiciary on the other persisted, particularly regarding overall COVID-19 response. Bukele 12 Nov vetoed law regulating COVID-19 response, which Legislative Assembly passed in Oct, but assembly same day ratified law regardless; law must be approved by Supreme Court to enter into force. Meanwhile, tensions between executive and judiciary persisted. As part of Attorney General’s Office and International Commission against Impunity in El Salvador’s joint investigation into suspected irregularities in purchase of COVID-19-related supplies, prosecutors 9-10 Nov raided 20 govt offices; police temporarily blocked prosecutors from entering health ministry headquarters. Chair of U.S. House Foreign Affairs Committee Eliot Engel next day called on Salvadoran police not to interfere with investigations. Attorney General’s Office 10 Nov requested that Legislative Assembly lift immunity of national police chief over alleged breach of duties for failing to force finance minister to appear before Legislative Assembly 2 Oct, after several no-shows. Bukele supporters 30 Nov surrounded for several hours headquarters of Supreme Electoral Tribunal in capital San Salvador to press tribunal to accept ruling party officials’ candidacies for mayoral and legislative elections scheduled for Feb 2021 after it suspended their registration based on Constitutional Court’s ruling. Justice efforts related to 1979-1992 civil war continued to falter: judge investigating 1981 El Mozote massacre, in which army is accused of killing around 1,000 civilians, 9 Nov requested that Attorney General investigate whether Bukele and Defence Minister René Merino Monroy had issued orders to block judicial inspection of military archives; move follows judge being repeatedly prevented by army from examining military archives in recent weeks. Govt 23-27 Nov arrested 572 members of MS-13 and 18th Street gangs throughout country in U.S.-backed anti-organised crime operations.

Amid uptick in gang violence, tensions ran high between President Bukele’s govt on one hand and Legislative Assembly and Supreme Court on the other over delays in salary payments. Country 11 Oct saw uptick in violence, with 13 reported murders including six from mass killing in capital San Salvador’s Concepción neighbourhood; police immediately detained 18th Street gang member but released him next day. Daily murder rate average for 1-22 Oct period reached 5.1, up from 2.3 in June. Legislative Assembly and Supreme Court of Justice employees late Sept-early Oct said Bukele’s administration was withholding their salaries; Bukele 6 Oct said govt would pay salaries next day but could not pay certain funds allocated to municipalities, prompting hundreds of city halls’ employees to stage protests and roadblocks in at least 11 locations across country 7 Oct. Supreme Court 12 Oct ordered govt to avoid delaying salary payments again; Bukele immediately rejected ruling and accused judges of being “corrupt and sold”; delegation of mayors 19 Oct sent letter to presidency demanding allocation of funds, saying 75 city halls are on brink of bankruptcy. In ongoing investigations of high-level corruption cases, Attorney General’s Office 8 Oct froze four bank accounts and seized eight properties of former Defence Minister David Munguía Payés, alleging they had been obtained illegally.

Amid ongoing political tensions between govt and judiciary, reports emerged of officials conducting informal negotiations with criminal groups. News outlet El Faro 3 Sept reported senior state officials including director of prisons Osiris Luna have been negotiating since at least Oct 2019 with MS-13 gang leaders in jails to reduce homicides and secure electoral support; President Bukele same day denied allegations but Attorney General’s Office 4 Sept opened investigation and 7 Sept raided penitentiary system headquarters and two jails. Attorney general 16 Sept issued fresh arrest warrant for former President Funes on charges of illicit association, arbitrary acts and neglect of duties in relation to 2012 “gang truce”. Tensions between executive and judiciary persisted. Supreme Court 15 Sept ruled requirement to test negative for COVID-19 within 72 hours of landing in El Salvador, introduced by airport authorities 11 Sept, is unconstitutional; Bukele next day said measure would remain in force; attorney general 23 Sept opened investigation into possible felonies by presidential staffers for disregarding Court’s order. Institute for Access to Public Information 10 Sept criticised govt’s Aug changes to freedom of information act that make it more difficult to obtain public information from govt institutions. Group of U.S. Democratic lawmakers same day expressed “deep concern” over govt’s “hostility toward independent and investigative media outlets”, echoed by six Republicans 23 Sept who also warned that alleged negotiations with MS-13 would legitimise gang. Bukele 8 Sept asked VP Ulloa to draft constitutional reforms “in accordance with current societal needs”; Ulloa 17 Sept said reforms would not touch on country’s political system or alternance in power but declined to clarify their scope. Military 21 Sept denied judge investigating 1981 El Mozote massacre, in which army killed around 1,000 civilians, entry to military archives; judge 23 Sept rescheduled inspection for 5 Oct, but Bukele next day said he will not allow access.

Tensions persisted between President Bukele’s govt on one hand and Legislative Assembly and Supreme Court on the other, while corruption allegations emerged against current and previous administrations. Assembly 2 Aug approved Inter-American Development Bank’s $250mn loan to address COVID-19 pandemic after missing 31 July initial deadline for approving loan following disagreement with govt on how money would be spent. Supreme Court 7 Aug ruled July executive decree, which postponed second phase of economic reopening until 20 Aug, as unconstitutional as it gave health ministry power to limit citizens’ rights; businesses 23 Aug resumed operations without restrictions. After Bukele said in 9 Aug televised speech that he would have “shot [fusilado]” Supreme Court magistrates who ruled against govt were he a dictator, UN rapporteur on judiciaries 11 Aug expressed concern over threat to life and integrity of magistrates. Allegations of corruption involving current and former govt officials continued to emerge; authorities 14 Aug charged two former defence ministers and a former president of opposition ARENA party over suspicion of unlawful transactions with weapons company, while media outlet Factum next day accused current director of prisons of misusing $8.5mn revenue from jail shops. Govt continued to tout security achievements but homicide rates increased. Justice and Public Security Minister Rogelio Rivas 3 Aug stated femicides had dropped by 61.4% and disappearances by 46% since Bukele took office in 2019; but police reported average of 4.1 daily homicides 1-24 Aug, increase from 3.6 in July and 2.3 in June.

Tensions continued between, on one hand, President Bukele and, on the other, Legislative Assembly and Supreme Court, over COVID-19 response, while allegations of corruption in use of emergency funds plagued govt. After Legislative Assembly declined to discuss govt’s 24 June proposal to declare 15-day state of exception to restrict public movement and gatherings amid pandemic, at least three mayors 4 July requested MPs to allow localised quarantines. Bukele 19 July postponed sine die second phase of economic reopening, citing rising number of COVID-19 cases. Allegations of corruption in govt’s use of coronavirus emergency funds persisted, including reports of overcharging by suppliers linked to govt officials; newspaper La Prensa Gráfica 17 July reported Health Minister Francisco Alabí in April authorised purchase of health equipment worth $225,000 from family member’s auto repair business. Director of prisons 1 July said authorities had contained COVID-19 outbreak in prisons, though head of penitentiary system’s medical department same day said reduction in number of cases was due to infected inmates’ release. Govt continued to boast of security achievements; ministry of justice and public security 11 July said number of homicides in nine historically violent municipalities had decreased by 54 to 77% since Bukele took office in June 2019. Attorney General’s Office 23 July said authorities had arrested former Defence Minister David Munguía Payés and issued arrest warrant for former President Funes over allegations of “unlawful acts” during 2012-2014 gang truce, notably making “pact” with gangs. U.S. authorities 15 July announced arrest and indictment of 24 MS-13 gang leaders, for first time charging one with terrorism.

Power struggle continued between, on one hand, President Bukele and, on the other, Legislative Assembly and Supreme Court, over terms of COVID-19 restrictions. Bukele 4 June issued executive decree extending nationwide quarantine until 15 June; 6 June vetoed emergency bill passed late May by Legislative Assembly, which set out plan to restart economy 8 June. Supreme Court 8 June ruled 4 June decree unconstitutional. Legislative Assembly 12 June passed new bill to reopen economy; next day, Bukele said he would veto it and issued new decree to reopen economy in phases from 16 June onward. Amid increase of reported COVID-19 cases, Bukele 25 June sent legislative proposal to Assembly to reinstall rolling 15-day nationwide quarantine. Meanwhile, opposition party Nuestro Tiempo 13 June called on Assembly to lift Bukele’s legal immunity for breaking rule of law and defying checks and balances on power; Bukele’s supporters immediately branded move as coup attempt. Justice and public security minister 4 June boasted improvements in security in first year of Bukele’s presidency, with 62% decrease in homicides and 36% decrease in disappearances since June 2019. Newspaper El Faro 13 June reported burials carried out with COVID-19 protocol suggest death toll may be higher than official figures.

Power struggle continued between, on one hand, President Bukele, and on the other, Legislative Assembly and Supreme Court, over terms of COVID-19 restrictions. Bukele 16 May bypassed Legislative Assembly and signed executive decree extending COVID-19 state of emergency for 30 days; two days later, Supreme Court however suspended decree following request from attorney general, and later that day, assembly passed renewed, more lenient version of state of emergency lasting another fifteen days; Supreme Court 22 May announced suspension of Bukele’s decree permanent. Legislative Assembly 30 May passed new version of state of emergency bill establishing calendar to reopen economy in June; Bukele immediately announced he would veto it. Tensions also rose between govt and private sector; govt 12 May suspended talks with businesses over measures to reopen economy, with Bukele accusing representatives of sabotaging govt. Detention in containment centres of people accused of defying COVID-19 quarantine continued to spark controversy. Anti-riot police 4 May dissolved protests of detainees in two containment centres in capital San Salvador. Human rights NGOs 5 May said centres had turned into hotspots for contagion and Human Rights Ombudsman 8 May reported that some detainees were threatened and wounded by gang members inside centres. Following late April spike in homicides, security forces 27 April-3 May detained at least three MS-13 gang leaders and violence early May reportedly went back down to historical lows, with 56 homicides reported 1-29 May. Legislative Assembly 7 May voted against lifting immunity of its former head and presidential candidate Norman Quijano; request made by attorney general’s office to investigate Quijano’s alleged negotiations with gangs for electoral gain in 2014.

President Bukele defied Supreme Court’s rulings deeming some measures taken amid COVID-19 pandemic unconstitutional, opening institutional crisis, and sudden spike in homicides late-April after months of improvement in security situation prompted govt to reverse prison policy. Bukele early April authorised security forces to toughen measures against those defying COVID-19 quarantine, including detaining and transferring them to containment centres. Supreme Court 8 April ruled detention of citizens for breaching quarantine unconstitutional and 15 April ordered Bukele to comply with decision; Bukele immediately said he would not abide by rulings, opening institutional crisis. Legislative Assembly (LA) 16 April approved extension of state of emergency until 1 May. Inter American Press Association 15 April expressed concern over alleged increase in violations of press freedom in context of COVID-19, while NGO Human Rights Watch same day denounced holding of 4,236 people in 87 containment centres and said Bukele “encouraged excessive use of force”. After months of low homicide rates, police reported 23 homicides in one day 24 April, allegedly highest daily toll since Bukele took office last June; violence continued 25-27 April with another 54 homicides. In response, Bukele 24 April imposed total lockdown in jails housing gang members, arguing orders to kill came from imprisoned gang leaders; 26 April ordered members of different gangs be mixed in same cell, reversing long-standing prison policy, and offered legal support to security officials involved in killing of gang members. Amid continued focus on migration, U.S. Sec State Pompeo 13 April said migratory flow from Central America dropped by 76% since May 2019 and announced restoral of some aid – cut in 2019 – to help country further tackle migration.

Political focus remained on govt’s temporary deployment of military in and around Legislative Assembly (LA) in Feb, while COVID-19 pandemic sparked tensions. Prosecutors 9 March interviewed fifteen lawmakers regarding President Bukele’s recourse to army in Feb in bid to make LA approve loan for his security plan. Polls showed widespread support for Bukele’s move despite civil society and international condemnation, while his party remained well ahead in voting intentions for LA elections due in 2021. In anti-corruption efforts, legislative committee 4 March began considering whether to lift immunity of former LA head Norman Quijano over allegations of electoral fraud. Violence remained at historic lows with police reporting 2.3 daily homicides 1-25 March, compared with around 4 in late 2019; however, following 29 Feb-1 March killing of two soldiers, Bukele 2 March ordered state of emergency in prison system to prevent imprisoned gang leaders from communicating with other gang members; 10 March lifted measure citing need to prevent spread of COVID-19 in prisons. Amid epidemic, LA 14 March approved decrees declaring national emergency and state of exception, allowing govt to limit or force movement of citizens, and prohibiting mass gatherings for fifteen days, 29 March extended measures for another two weeks; civil society decried restrictions and filed five complaints with Supreme Court, which accepted to look into three. Hundreds of people 30 March lined in front of economy ministry offices in capital San Salvador to claim $300 welfare payment promised by Bukele following quarantine measures; govt closed offices, citing need to prevent spread of virus, prompting dozens to protests.

Tensions between govt and Legislative Assembly (LA) escalated, fuelling fears of President Bukele’s possible authoritarian drift. After opposition Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) 4 Feb announced it would not approve $109mn loan to buy security equipment over concerns of transparency of tendering process, govt 6 Feb summoned LA to 9 Feb extraordinary session to vote on loan, with Bukele warning deputies that not convening would be unconstitutional; on day of vote, 23 out of 84 deputies attended, while Bukele deployed dozens of military and police officers around LA and in its plenary chamber, later giving lawmakers a week to approve loan. Journalists covering events reported press restrictions and lawmakers denounced withdrawal of their protections and alleged harassment by security forces. Opposition, civil society, EU and U.S. decried events and called for dialogue, while Supreme Court 10 Feb declared unconstitutional Bukele’s move to summon extraordinary session and requested him to abstain from political use of military. Hundreds of pro-govt protesters 16 Feb gathered outside LA to pressure lawmakers into approving loan, giving them another two-week ultimatum. Attorney general (AG) continued investigation into ARENA and Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) high-level officials over alleged electoral fraud and illicit associations; judge 6 Feb requested AG expand list of those under investigation to include former presidents Funes and Sánchez Cerén. Govt insisted on security achievements including 4 Feb dismantling of drug trafficking group in La Paz department. Bukele reported smallest number of homicides in Jan since end of civil war in 1992. LA 26 Feb approved controversial “reconciliation law” establishing transitional justice procedures for crimes committed during country’s civil war (1980-1992); rights groups called it “amnesty law in disguise” and Bukele said he would veto it.

Security situation continued to improve with President Bukele reporting Jan as least deadly month since end of civil war in 1992, while Legislative Assembly (LA) passed historic law to protect victims of forced displacement. Govt 8 Jan reported homicides fell by 60% since Bukele took office in June 2019, totalling 2,398 in 2019; attorney general 13 Jan reported 3,202 disappearances in 2019, down from 3,679 in 2018; 8 Jan made combatting extortion his priority for 2020 after reports increased 17.2% in 2019, to 2,598 cases. Bukele reported smallest number of homicides in Jan since end of civil war in 1992. Public opinion poll which surveyed 1,204 people 16 Jan showed 91% approval rate for Bukele. LA 9 Jan passed bill to protect internally displaced persons notably by bringing together institutions to respond to and prevent forced displacement. On 28th anniversary of 1992 peace agreement mid-Jan, victims of 1980-1992 civil war continued to decry impunity for war crimes and demanded that they be consulted in formulation of National Reconciliation Law, which LA has been discussing since July 2016, when Supreme Court declared Amnesty Law unconstitutional. Prosecutors 9 Jan issued arrest warrant for prominent opposition politician Sigfrido Reyes, who left country in Nov, for embezzlement during his term as LA president from 2011 to 2015; judge asked international police organisation Interpol to issue red notice for his arrest. Attorney general 27 Jan initiated pre-trial procedure against former head of LA Norman Quijano, on charges of illicit association and electoral fraud, for reportedly meeting with gang members and negotiating their support for his presidential race in 2014.

Judicial authorities took steps in fight against organised crime, including trial involving plea-bargain witness that ended 12 Dec with conviction of 373 of 426 MS13 gang members on trial, including seventeen historic leaders, on homicide, drug, and weapon charges among others, with sentences of up to 74 years. Judge said prosecutors should have also presented charges against politicians from ARENA (Alianza Republicana Nacionalista) and FMLN (the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front) parties whom witness accused of negotiating with gangs in exchange for political support. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) paid first “in loco” visit in 32 years 2-4 Dec, focusing on public security, transitional justice, people deprived of their freedom, migrants’ rights, women’s rights and LGBTI people. According to National Police, December closed with 120 murders, which Bukele said 31 Dec was least violent month since 1992 peace agreement. Homicides dropped 6 per cent in the second half of 2019. President Bukele visited Japan, China, and Qatar late Nov-15 Dec, securing investment in important infrastructure projects and other cooperation agreements.

Relations between President Bukele and Legislative Assembly (LA) remained tense; LA 31 October shut down controversial commission it had created to investigate accusations that opposition parties Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (FMLN) and the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) could have been behind Sept peak in homicides. Commission nonetheless presented report 26 Nov arguing no evidence was found, and suggested president dismiss govt official who made accusations. Bukele 12 Nov urged LA to approve funds for govt’s Territorial Control Plan to combat crime. Bukele 13 Nov met with new LA head and announced “180-degree shift” in relations with LA. Officials pointed to improvements in security and the fight against organised crime: Minister of Justice and Public Security 5 Nov stated that, as a result of Territorial Control Plan, security forces had seized more than 2,000 weapons, while Bukele reported Oct was least violent month since 1992. Director of prisons system 17 Nov claimed to have been able to curb communication from within jails to the outside. On international front, Bukele 3 Nov recognised Juan Guaidó as president of Venezuela and gave Venezuelan diplomats 48 hours to leave country.

Tensions continued between President Bukele and opposition-controlled Legislative Assembly over govt accusations against main opposition parties. Assembly 8 Oct created special commission to investigate Sept claims by govt official that opposition parties Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) and Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) may have been behind spike in homicides 20-21 Sept. Assembly 16 Oct appointed Apolonio Tobar as human rights Ombudsman; Bukele criticised appointment, noting that Attorney General’s Office has investigated Tobar on four occasions. Witness at trial of 426 MS-13 gang members on murder and weapons charges 11 Oct alleged gang negotiated deals with FMLN and ARENA around 2014 presidential and 2015 local elections in exchange for votes, and reported gang members paid military officers for sniper training. Following Sept asylum agreement with U.S., Washington 16 Oct announced restoration of some aid previously cut in April, focused on security and law enforcement; Bukele 28 Oct announced U.S. had extended Temporary Protected Status residency for 260,00 Salvadorans living in U.S. to 2021. Head of National Police announced 108 homicides 1-29 Oct, approx half that of same period 2018.

Debates continued over future anti-corruption body, while govt increased anti-migration efforts. UN Sec-Gen’s spokesperson 2 Sept said govt requested UN support in creating International Commission against Impunity in El Salvador (CICIES). Govt and Organization of American States (OAS) 6 Sept signed letter of intent on creating CICIES within three months; OAS Sec Gen Luis Almagro 24 Sept appointed Guatemalan Ronalth Ochaeta as interim CICIES chief. Civil society and opposition representatives criticised CICIES for apparent govt efforts to bypass parliamentary ratification and over plans for body to work closer with national police than Attorney General (AG)’s office. Govt 2 Sept lifted state of emergency in prison system, which had entailed tough isolation measures for imprisoned gang members in recent months. AG 21 Sept announced 2,311 reports of disappearances 1 Jan-16 Sept, average of nine per day. Following 28 Aug govt-U.S. letter of intent to strengthen cooperation on migration and security, Ministry of Justice and Public Security 12 Sept announced creation of border patrol unit, composed of 800 police and 300 migration officials, to tackle illegal immigration and human trafficking. Govt and U.S. 20 Sept signed asylum cooperation agreement, authorising U.S. to transfer asylum seekers to El Salvador while their cases are being reviewed by U.S. authorities.

Lowest monthly homicide rate this century marked improved security situation, though debate continued over whether this was due to President Bukele’s anti-gang measures. Following late-July announcement of third phase of anti-gang “Territorial Control Plan” which saw measures extended to all departments and foresees $210mn of technical and technological equipment to security forces, govt insisted plan had helped reduce homicides though some security experts said assessment was premature; national police reported 131 murders in Aug, lowest rate since 2000; since Bukele’s 1 Jun swearing in, daily murder average dropped from nine to around four. Bukele 8 Aug pledged to fight corruption and promised to create International Commission against Impunity in El Salvador (CICIES) before 1 Sept; civil society welcomed initiative but warned it was being undertaken in secretive way without consultation; Organization of American States Sec Gen Almagro and VP Ulloa 30 Aug announced creation of technical mission to establish CICIES. Amid regional focus on migration and following late July U.S.-Guatemala “Safe Third Country” agreement requiring migrants who pass through Guatemala to first seek asylum there instead of U.S., acting U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security Kevin McAleenan 1 Aug stated U.S. will pursue similar agreement with El Salvador. Police 3 Aug detained two people, including secretary in parliament, in Anguiatú on Guatemala border, on charges of human trafficking.

President Bukele continued to detail measures as part of anti-gang “Territorial Control Plan”. Bukele 2 July announced second phase in plan, called “Opportunities” and aimed at preventing gang recruitment, providing vocational training to 100,000 youth. As part of anti-gang plan, Bukele 8 July ordered police and military deployment on transport routes to deter gangs from assaulting passengers and 17 July instructed defence ministry to recruit up to 3,000 new soldiers to implement measures. Amid concerns over extraordinary measures adopted in jails, govt 2 July accepted Inter-American Commission on Human Rights’ request to visit country. Regional focus on migration continued; Bukele 21 July met with U.S. Sec State Pompeo in El Salvador, signing agreement to combat drug trafficking, gangs and illegal migration.

New President Nayib Bukele, sworn in 1 June, launched flurry of anti-gang measures. Bukele early June named cabinet including two hardliners in fight against armed groups, René Merino Monroy as minister of defence and Mauricio Arriaza Chicas as director of national police. Human Rights Institute of Central American University decried Arriaza appointment, said he previously led police units accused of extrajudicial killings. Bukele 11 June ruled out possibility of truce with gangs while Arriaza next day said police would adopt harsher measures. Bukele’s “Territorial Control Plan” began 20 June with three focus areas: tightening control of jailed gang leaders; curbing financing for illicit activities; and strengthening capacity of security forces. Gang attacks on security forces continued with four police officers killed 1-17 June, and a soldier 26 June. Amid regional focus on migration and govt criticism that U.S.-Mexico 7 June deal to increase anti-migration efforts did not include Northern Triangle countries, Bukele 20 June met Mexican President López Obrador in Tapachula, Mexico, to discuss migration, with latter pledging $30mn in support for El Salvador.

Gang-related violence remained high amid continuing anti-gang and anti-corruption operations. National Police 20 May reported 1,236 homicides since start of year, 13% less than same period in 2018, however homicide rate on rise since April. Gang attacks on police increased including police officer killed in San Juan Nonualco, La Paz (centre) 17 May, 19th police officer killed in 2019. In ongoing anti-gang operations, Attorney General 16 May issued 274 arrest warrants in attempts to attack criminal groups’ structures, including targeting collaborators in police and judicial institutions. Legislative Assembly 27 May resumed debate on controversial National Reconciliation bill with input from civil society; critics allege new law would entail amnesty for war crimes during 1980-1992 civil war.

Security situation remains critical with enduring high levels of killings and widespread gang violence. National Police 27 April reported 1,006 homicides since start of year, 228 less than same period in 2018, however homicide rate rose again during April. In anti-gang operations, police early April arrested MS-13 leader accused of extortion and 117 alleged members of group. Minister of Security and civil society 8 April called on Legislative Assembly to approve law recognising internal displacement, in line with 2018 Constitutional Chamber ruling; govt has previously refused to recognise phenomenon of internal displacement resulting from criminal violence. Anti-corruption drive focussing on high-level former officials continued with Supreme Court late March approving attorney general’s request for former President Funes’ extradition from Nicaragua on corruption charges, which Nicaragua rejected, saying Funes has political asylum; Funes and former President Saca among ten Salvadorans on U.S. blacklist of corrupt officials published 4 April.

UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet 6 March criticised proposed National Reconciliation Law, which Legislative Assembly began discussing in Feb, warning that if it was approved it would grant amnesty to those who may be “responsible for war crimes and crimes against humanity” during 1980-1992 civil war, violating victims’ right to justice and reparation. Homicide rate remained lower than in 2018, with police chief 23 March announcing 659 murders since beginning of year, down from 870 in same period in 2018. Regional focus on migration continued with Northern Triangle and U.S. govts 27 March signing agreement to deter international crime and curb irregular migration; U.S. State Department 30 March announced end of aid to region, day after President Trump claimed Northern Triangle countries had “set up” migrant caravans.

In presidential election result 3 Feb, former San Salvador mayor Nayib Bukele, won in first round with 53.1% of votes, disrupting traditionally dominant bipartisan system. Bukele won with support of minority party GANA, whose low representation in Legislative Assembly raises concerns over challenges he will face in governing. Bukele met with U.S. ambassador 7 Feb, stated govt and U.S. would curb migration through economic development. Another migrant caravan of 105 people left San Salvador 16 Feb, in continuing attempts by Salvadorans to reach U.S. border. Gang-related and other violence remained high, though daily homicide totals fell; national police chief 14 Feb announced 46 women were killed 1 Jan-13 Feb.

Ahead of Feb presidential elections, gangs put pressure on govt by stepping up killings; national police chief 20 Jan announced 210 people had been murdered since 1 Jan, including spike of 61 murders 12-14 Jan mainly in eastern departments of San Miguel, La Unión and Usulután. National police chief 2 Jan announced 2018 homicide rate was 50.3 homicides per 100,000, down from 60.8 in 2017, although attorney general reported disappearances had increased by 10% in 2018 to 3,514 cases; still no institutionally agreed methodology to count disappearances. San Salvador Mayor Nayib Bukele continued to lead polls ahead of first round of presidential elections 3 Feb. Judge 19 Jan ordered detention of former President Funes for divulging secret document involving corruption case of former President Flores.

Violence continued with 27 people killed over weekend of 1-2 Dec, however national police chief 9 Dec said 2018 homicide rate down 15% compared to 2017, at around 51 homicides per 100,000. Anti-gang operations continued with security forces arresting 631 alleged members in one day 11 Dec in Central El Salvador. In lead-up to Feb presidential elections, supporters of leading candidate Nayib Bukele 6 Dec broke into Electoral Supreme Court HQ following call from Bukele to denounce alleged fraud. Legislative Assembly 21 Dec elected new attorney general, ARENA party nominee Raul Melara, replacing incumbent Douglas Meléndez who had prosecuted and investigated two former presidents on corruption charges. U.S. President Trump 28 Dec threatened to cut “all aid” to El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras unless they do more to stop migration.

Authorities in cooperation with regional counterparts 6 Nov detained 340 alleged gang members including two heads of MS-13 and 18th Street gangs, and captured another MS-13 leader 9 Nov; gangs targeted security forces in response to govt’s anti-gang operations with soldier killed during clashes 31 Oct, bringing total of members of army and police killed by gangs in 2018 to 28. Lawmakers 16 Nov elected four new magistrates to Supreme Court’s Constitutional Chamber after four-month delay. Salvadorans joined “migrant caravans” heading toward U.S. late Oct-early Nov with largest group of 2,000 leaving 31 Oct; NGO Cristosal 5 Nov said 1,672 people had been internally displaced by armed violence in 2018.

Official homicide figures continued to fall, with police chief 15 Oct reporting 2,657 killings since 1 Jan, 13% reduction on same period 2017, and dramatic increase in drugs seizures since 2015. Former gang truce mediator Raúl Mijango sentenced 12 Oct to thirteen years prison for benefiting from extortion rackets during failed dialogue process. Anti-corruption drive continued with attorney general (AG) 16 Oct issuing arrest warrants for 25 people including former President Funes, a former AG and businessmen for involvement in corruption scheme within AG’s office. U.S. federal judge 3 Oct ordered U.S. administration to temporarily halt its plan to cut Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program after finding insufficient evidence to end TPS for several countries, including El Salvador with 200,000 beneficiaries. U.S. President Trump 16 and 22 Oct threatened to suspend funding to region if migrant caravan from Honduras is not stopped (see Honduras).

Govt launched unprecedented number of anti-gang operations in centre and south with police 2-4 Sept tackling both factions of 18th Street Gang for first time, leading to capture of nearly 200 gang members across country. Attorney General’s Office 29 Aug launched Operation Pacific Harpoon against MS-13 finances, arresting 357 gang members. Month saw continued progress in fight against corruption with court sentencing former President Saca to ten years’ imprisonment 13 Sept for embezzlement and money laundering; attorney general 14 Sept requested judicial approval for extradition request for former President Funes from Nicaragua on corruption charges.

National Assembly 16 Aug voted to make permanent the controversial “extraordinary measures” in place in some prisons, including extreme isolation of jailed gang members; vote entrenches security policy based on tough law enforcement, and seen by observers as likely to deepen crisis in country’s jails and make possibility of dialogue with gangs more remote; also prompted criminal gangs to increase attacks against police and military in protest. Police chief Howard Cotto 7 Aug claimed murder of six police officers two weeks before vote were part of gang strategy to push for suspension of “extraordinary measures”, bringing total officers killed in 2018 to fourteen. Human rights groups continued to voice concern over measures including extreme isolation of jailed gang members. 61 MS-13 gang members, including national leaders, were condemned to over 100 years’ prison 21 Aug after arrest in July 2016 “Operation Jaque”. Attorney General 28 Aug launched operation against MS-13 with 50 arrests. Month saw some progress in fight against corruption as former President Saca 7 Aug pleaded guilty to embezzlement scheme amounting to over $300mn during his govt, becoming first former Salvadoran head of state to face prison for corruption. Govt 21 Aug established diplomatic relations with China, ending support for Taiwan (see Taiwan Strait).

Trend of rising homicide rates continued with reported average 10.1 killings per day in June, up from 7.8 in May. With U.S. continuing to deport gang members, Salvadoran officials 12 July said 527 gang members so far deported in 2018, of whom 67 jailed. Newspaper El Faro late June released story concerning former mayor of San Salvador Nayib Bukele, who aims to run for president in March 2019 elections, alleging he negotiated with gangs. FM 10-11 July attended Northern Triangle of Central America and Mexico (Tricamex) meeting to address regional migration crisis and security (see Guatemala).

National Civil Police reported total of 1,419 homicides 1 Jan-21 May 2018, 111 more than same period in 2017, including increased cases of gender-based violence; Legislative Assembly late May proposed reform to increase jail sentences for femicides. Anti-extortion operation 28-30 May led to arrest of 247 suspected gang members. Attorney General Douglas Meléndez 8 June ordered arrest for alleged embezzlement scheme of former President Funes as well as 29 others, including relatives and former officials in his administration. Funes’s former wife and Secretary of Social Inclusion Vanda Pignato arrested 12 June for alleged corruption. Govt 18 June published statement condemning U.S.’s increasingly hostile anti-immigration policies that have led to separation of Salvadoran families at U.S. southern border. U.S. President Trump 23 June announced he was considering withdrawing foreign aid from countries from which Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) gang members originate.

Govt confirmed further increase in violence in first months of 2018, with homicides up 10% on 2017. Attorney General Douglas Meléndez 10 May noted existence of new gang violence in northern San Salvador, in centre of country, and expansion of gang violence in many municipalities prioritised under “Safe El Salvador” govt violence prevention program. In 15 May media interview, two heads of MS-13 gang highlighted new call by three largest gangs for new truce with govt. Gender-based violence also increased; Ministry of Justice and Public Security announced 17% increase in femicides in 2018, totalling 165 as of 15 May. Govt 3 May approved initiative presented by women’s rights groups to combat gender violence. Minister of Justice 26 April acknowledged police and armed forces’ involvement in causing insecurity and forced displacement. Seven police officers sent to trial 7 May for killing four people; thirteen police officers convicted of crimes including extortion, murder and sexual harassment. Former President Saca and six members of his govt 16 May sent to trial for money laundering. FMLN ruling party chose FM Hugo Martínez as its presidential candidate for 2019 elections.

Trend of rising homicide rates continued throughout April, despite govt rhetoric linking alleged improvements in security situation to implementation of controversial “extraordinary measures” in place since 2016 that isolate gang members in jails. Police chief Howard Cotto 2 April announced 939 murders between Jan and March, equal to 10.4 homicides a day, explicitly linking rise to “extraordinary measures”; parliament 6 April voted to extend measures for another six months. Police 12 April announced increase in gang attacks against security forces early 2018. UN Human Rights Committee 5 April pointed to existence of “death squads” inside El Salvador’s armed forces, warning that large number of abuses remain unpunished. Businessman Carlos Calleja was elected presidential candidate of conservative ARENA party 22 April.

Ruling Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) performed poorly in 4 March legislative and local elections with worst electoral result since 2003, securing only 23 lawmakers. Opposition parties gained control in twelve out of fourteen regional capitals. National Civil Police 2 March announced 25% year-on-year increase in homicides in Jan and Feb. Security forces 1 March unearthed fifteen bodies in clandestine grave in La Paz department attributed to gang killings. Police 16 March launched “Operación Libertad” to dismantle MS-13 gang’s finances. Death of MS-503 spokesman in Mexico City 1 March provided new evidence of expansion of gangs to Mexico.

Debate about future of “extraordinary measures” against gangs and recommendations of UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial executions dominated security debate during month. Following two-week tour, UN Special Rapporteur Agnes Callamard 5 Feb issued report noting extrajudicial killings and excessive use of force against gang members by security officers, condemning “deplorable conditions” of Salvadoran jails and calling for end to “extraordinary measures” in specific jails. Ruling party FMLN and Nationalist Republic Alliance ARENA 6 Feb expressed disagreement and defended extension of March 2016 “extraordinary measures” plan; attorney general argued it helped reduce mobile communications from inside jails by 97%. Local court 9 Feb condemned six police officers for killing alleged gang members. Responding to concerns about excessive use of force by police, govt 14 Feb launched new elite police unit Specialized Police Tactical Unit (UTEP) and disbanded Rapid Reaction Groups (GRP), previously accused of extrajudicial actions, extortion and sexual abuse. UTEP same day launched third massive operation “Operación Cuscatlán” to dismantle MS-13 gang’s finances. Special court 1 Feb issued unprecedented prison sentence against former mayor for illicit association with Barrio 18 street gang. Country preparing for legislative and local elections to be held 4 March.

In annual evaluation of violence 2 Jan, police chief reported 25% reduction in homicides (totalling 3,954) in 2017 compared with 2016, covering nearly all regions; however violence reportedly increased in previously more stable northern municipalities, possibly pointing to rapid expansion by gangs in new areas. Relatively peaceful first half of year followed gangs’ Jan 2017 offer to disband and begin new dialogue process; spike in homicides in Sept and Oct coincided with tough security operations and jail transfers of gang leaders. Security minister 25 Jan advocated extension until 2019 of “extraordinary measures of security” plan approved in March 2016 reinforcing confinement conditions of gang leaders in jail. U.S. 8 Jan announced cancellation of Temporary Protection Status (TPS) for 195,000 Salvadorans in U.S. by Sept 2019, citing improved conditions in El Salvador, in significant setback for ruling FMLN govt ahead of local and legislative elections 4 March; observers fear it could undermine country’s security over long term. Supreme Court 8 Jan announced former President Antonio Saca to stand preliminary hearing for embezzlement of public funds 28 Feb. Legislative Assembly 5 Jan approved 2018 budget with $17.5mn less for security than previous year.

Nine people killed in two separate massacres in west 17-18 Dec, including military officer; these and other killings resulted in nearly 35% increase in homicides compared with previous month according to police figures. Ahead of local and legislative elections scheduled for March, potential disruption of polls by gangs in spotlight again after attorney general 21 Nov declared that govt officials had been in communication with gangs; Minister of Justice and Public Security denied. Govt 19 Dec finally recognised existence of forced displacement in El Salvador; Minister Landaverde announced govt preparing protection protocols for victims. Followed 13 Dec report by attorney general for human rights which counted 138 cases affecting 458 victims 2016-2017, declaring “national problem”. Official data 23 Nov showed number of gang members deported back to El Salvador had increased by 102% in 2017 from previous year, with over 1,000 arriving over past eleven months.

In response to growing homicides rates and surge in deaths of police officers, legislative assembly 1-15 Nov approved special ruling and penal code reforms to increase punishments for killing and intimidation of public officials; defence ministry 1 Nov deployed over 100 soldiers in west to support fight against criminal groups. Official homicide figures showed 452 for Oct, up on 435 for Sept. Newspaper La Prensa Gráfica 17 Nov reported controversial deal between govt and MS-13 gang leaders to reduce homicides in exchange for better conditions in jails; govt officials 18 Nov denied allegations. After two-day visit to El Salvador, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein 17 Nov questioned lack of spending on violence prevention.

Violence remained high, including at least 53 homicides reported 14-15 Oct, allegedly related to gang response to 12 Oct transfer of five recently captured gang leaders to maximum security prison operating under highly restrictive “extraordinary measures”. Prison chief 14 Oct said some of these measures in prisons might become permanent. Prosecutor’s office 2 Oct announced major overhaul of high-level positions, including downgrading former chief of anti-corruption unit who was leading cases against ex-Presidents Antonio Saca and Mauricio Funes. National commission 24 Oct discussed country’s deteriorating security situation and agreed to focus efforts on territorial recovery. U.S. attorney general 24 Oct declared that prosecuting MS-13 gang was a “priority” for Trump administration.

Spate of 40 murders on 23 Sept marked highest daily death toll of 2017; police blamed killings on fighting between criminal gangs. Authorities reported almost 200 people killed 21-28 Sept, including three police and two military personnel. Govt announced special measures and stronger military presence in capital in response to recent wave of police killings; new measures include faster trials, isolation in high security prisons, aid for families affected. Online magazine Factum late Aug published investigation detailing activities by alleged death squads inside police, suspected of killings, sexual abuse and extortion. Religious and academic institutions 5 Sept briefed Inter American Commission on Human Rights (CIDH) and officials in Mexico City on allegations of excessive use of force by security forces. One CIDH commissioner said figures on clashes between police and gangs hid “many extrajudicial killings”; govt denied. Two law enforcement operations made gains against MS-13 gang: police 7 Sept carried out Operación Tecana detaining around 100 including six police; attorney general’s offices from three Northern Triangle countries 12 Sept carried out simultaneous operations against MS-13, several hundred detained. U.S. President Trump’s 5 Sept announcement that policy deferring deportation of children of undocumented migrants will end early 2018 prompted concerns over impact on humanitarian situation.

Spike in gang-related violence continued to target police officers, killing 22 as of 29 Aug. 30 homicides reported 12-13 Aug, mostly in west. Justice Minister Mauricio Landaverde 14 Aug said gangs pressuring govt to return to dialogue; previously ascribed rise in homicides to gang infighting. Trial against eighteen people involved in 2012-2014 gang truce ended 29 August with acquittal for all; former Barrio 18 gang member testified that both ruling FMLN and main opposition party ARENA gave three major gangs $250,000 in exchange for votes during 2014 elections; parties denied or ignored accusations. U.S. 15 Aug ended part of immigration program created for Central American minors.